哋它亢 3.2 有什么新变化¶

作者:: Raymond Hettinger（译者：wh2099 at outlook dot com）

这篇文章介绍了哋它亢 3.2 相比 3.1 新增的特性。哋它亢 3.2 发布于 2011 年 2 月 20 日。文章聚焦于几个关键特性并给出了一些示例。有关完整细节，请参阅 Misc/NEWS 文件。

参见

PEP 392 - 哋它亢 3.2 发布计划

PEP 384: 定义稳定的ABI¶

过去，为一个哋它亢版本所构建的扩展模块通常无法用于其他哋它亢版本。特别是在 Windows 上，每一个哋它亢新特性发布版都必须重新构建想要使用的所有扩展模块。之所以有这样的要求是因为扩展模块可以任意访问哋它亢解释器的内部对象。

在哋它亢 3.2 中，则有了一种替代方式：扩展模块将自己约束于一个受限 API（通过定义 Py_LIMITED_API）因而不能使用许多内部对象，仅限使用一组承诺会在多个发布版中保持稳定的 API 函数。作为其结果，在这种模式下为 3.2 构建的扩展模块也将能在 3.3、3.4 等版本中运行。使用了内存结构体细节数据的扩展模块仍然可以被构建，但将需要为每个新特性发布版重新编译。

参见

PEP 384 - 定义稳定的ABI: PEP 由 Martin von Löwis 撰写

PEP 389: Argparse 命令行解析模块¶

A new module for command line parsing, argparse, was introduced to overcome the limitations of optparse which did not provide support for positional arguments (not just options), subcommands, required options and other common patterns of specifying and validating options.

This module has already had widespread success in the community as a third-party module. Being more fully featured than its predecessor, the argparse module is now the preferred module for command-line processing. The older module is still being kept available because of the substantial amount of legacy code that depends on it.

Here's an annotated example parser showing features like limiting results to a set of choices, specifying a metavar in the help screen, validating that one or more positional arguments is present, and making a required option:

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(
            description = 'Manage servers',         # main description for help
            epilog = 'Tested on Solaris and Linux') # displayed after help
parser.add_argument('action',                       # argument name
            choices = ['deploy', 'start', 'stop'],  # three allowed values
            help = 'action on each target')         # help msg
parser.add_argument('targets',
            metavar = 'HOSTNAME',                   # var name used in help msg
            nargs = '+',                            # require one or more targets
            help = 'url for target machines')       # help msg explanation
parser.add_argument('-u', '--user',                 # -u or --user option
            required = True,                        # make it a required argument
            help = 'login as user')

在命令字符串中调用解析器的示例:

>>> cmd = 'deploy sneezy.example.com sleepy.example.com -u skycaptain'
>>> result = parser.parse_args(cmd.split())
>>> result.action
'deploy'
>>> result.targets
['sneezy.example.com', 'sleepy.example.com']
>>> result.user
'skycaptain'

解释器自动生成的帮助示例:

>>> parser.parse_args('-h'.split())

usage: manage_cloud.py [-h] -u USER
                       {deploy,start,stop} HOSTNAME [HOSTNAME ...]

Manage servers

positional arguments:
  {deploy,start,stop}   action on each target
  HOSTNAME              url for target machines

optional arguments:
  -h, --help            show this help message and exit
  -u USER, --user USER  login as user

Tested on Solaris and Linux

一个非常好的 argparse 特性是可以定义子解析器，每个子解析器拥有它们自己的参数模式和帮助显示:

import argparse
parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='HELM')
subparsers = parser.add_subparsers()

parser_l = subparsers.add_parser('launch', help='Launch Control')   # first subgroup
parser_l.add_argument('-m', '--missiles', action='store_true')
parser_l.add_argument('-t', '--torpedos', action='store_true')

parser_m = subparsers.add_parser('move', help='Move Vessel',        # second subgroup
                                 aliases=('steer', 'turn'))         # equivalent names
parser_m.add_argument('-c', '--course', type=int, required=True)
parser_m.add_argument('-s', '--speed', type=int, default=0)

$ ./helm.py --help                         # top level help (launch and move)
$ ./helm.py launch --help                  # help for launch options
$ ./helm.py launch --missiles              # set missiles=True and torpedos=False
$ ./helm.py steer --course 180 --speed 5   # set movement parameters

参见

PEP 389 - 新的命令行解析模块: PEP 由 Steven Bethard 撰写

参阅 Upgrading optparse code 了解与 optparse 的差异的细节。

PEP 391: 基于字典的日志配置¶

The logging module provided two kinds of configuration, one style with function calls for each option or another style driven by an external file saved in a configparser format. Those options did not provide the flexibility to create configurations from JSON or YAML files, nor did they support incremental configuration, which is needed for specifying logger options from a command line.

To support a more flexible style, the module now offers logging.config.dictConfig() for specifying logging configuration with plain 哋它亢 dictionaries. The configuration options include formatters, handlers, filters, and loggers. Here's a working example of a configuration dictionary:

{"version": 1,
 "formatters": {"brief": {"format": "%(levelname)-8s: %(name)-15s: %(message)s"},
                "full": {"format": "%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s"}
                },
 "handlers": {"console": {
                   "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                   "formatter": "brief",
                   "level": "INFO",
                   "stream": "ext://sys.stdout"},
              "console_priority": {
                   "class": "logging.StreamHandler",
                   "formatter": "full",
                   "level": "ERROR",
                   "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"}
              },
 "root": {"level": "DEBUG", "handlers": ["console", "console_priority"]}}

If that dictionary is stored in a file called conf.json, it can be loaded and called with code like this:

>>> import json, logging.config
>>> with open('conf.json') as f:
...     conf = json.load(f)
...
>>> logging.config.dictConfig(conf)
>>> logging.info("Transaction completed normally")
INFO    : root           : Transaction completed normally
>>> logging.critical("Abnormal termination")
2011-02-17 11:14:36,694 root            CRITICAL Abnormal termination

参见

PEP 391 - 基于字典的日志配置: PEP 由 Vinay Sajip 撰写

PEP 3148: `concurrent.futures` 模块¶

Code for creating and managing concurrency is being collected in a new top-level namespace, concurrent. Its first member is a futures package which provides a uniform high-level interface for managing threads and processes.

The design for concurrent.futures was inspired by the java.util.concurrent package. In that model, a running call and its result are represented by a Future object that abstracts features common to threads, processes, and remote procedure calls. That object supports status checks (running or done), timeouts, cancellations, adding callbacks, and access to results or exceptions.

The primary offering of the new module is a pair of executor classes for launching and managing calls. The goal of the executors is to make it easier to use existing tools for making parallel calls. They save the effort needed to setup a pool of resources, launch the calls, create a results queue, add time-out handling, and limit the total number of threads, processes, or remote procedure calls.

Ideally, each application should share a single executor across multiple components so that process and thread limits can be centrally managed. This solves the design challenge that arises when each component has its own competing strategy for resource management.

Both classes share a common interface with three methods: submit() for scheduling a callable and returning a Future object; map() for scheduling many asynchronous calls at a time, and shutdown() for freeing resources. The class is a context manager and can be used in a with statement to assure that resources are automatically released when currently pending futures are done executing.

A simple of example of ThreadPoolExecutor is a launch of four parallel threads for copying files:

import concurrent.futures, shutil
with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as e:
    e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src1.txt', 'dest1.txt')
    e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src2.txt', 'dest2.txt')
    e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest3.txt')
    e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest4.txt')

参见

PEP 3148 -- futures - 异步执行指令: PEP 由 Brian Quinlan 撰写

Code for Threaded Parallel URL reads, an example using threads to fetch multiple web pages in parallel.

Code for computing prime numbers in parallel, an example demonstrating ProcessPoolExecutor.

PEP 3147: PYC 仓库目录¶

哋它亢's scheme for caching bytecode in .pyc files did not work well in environments with multiple 哋它亢 interpreters. If one interpreter encountered a cached file created by another interpreter, it would recompile the source and overwrite the cached file, thus losing the benefits of caching.

The issue of "pyc fights" has become more pronounced as it has become commonplace for Linux distributions to ship with multiple versions of 哋它亢. These conflicts also arise with C哋它亢 alternatives such as Unladen Swallow.

To solve this problem, 哋它亢's import machinery has been extended to use distinct filenames for each interpreter. Instead of 哋它亢 3.2 and 哋它亢 3.3 and Unladen Swallow each competing for a file called "mymodule.pyc", they will now look for "mymodule.c哋它亢-32.pyc", "mymodule.c哋它亢-33.pyc", and "mymodule.unladen10.pyc". And to prevent all of these new files from cluttering source directories, the pyc files are now collected in a "__pycache__" directory stored under the package directory.

Aside from the filenames and target directories, the new scheme has a few aspects that are visible to the programmer:

Imported modules now have a __cached__ attribute which stores the name of the actual file that was imported:

>>> import collections
>>> collections.__cached__ 
'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.c哋它亢-32.pyc'

The tag that is unique to each interpreter is accessible from the imp module:
```
>>> import imp 
>>> imp.get_tag() 
'c哋它亢-32'
```

Scripts that try to deduce source filename from the imported file now need to be smarter. It is no longer sufficient to simply strip the "c" from a ".pyc" filename. Instead, use the new functions in the imp module:

>>> imp.source_from_cache('c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.c哋它亢-32.pyc') 
'c:/py32/lib/collections.py'
>>> imp.cache_from_source('c:/py32/lib/collections.py') 
'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.c哋它亢-32.pyc'

The py_compile and compileall modules have been updated to reflect the new naming convention and target directory. The command-line invocation of compileall has new options: -i for specifying a list of files and directories to compile and -b which causes bytecode files to be written to their legacy location rather than __pycache__.
The importlib.abc module has been updated with new abstract base classes for loading bytecode files. The obsolete ABCs, PyLoader and PyPycLoader, have been deprecated (instructions on how to stay 哋它亢 3.1 compatible are included with the documentation).

参见

PEP 3147 - PYC 仓库目录: PEP 由 Barry Warsaw 撰写

PEP 3149: 带有 ABI 版本标签的 .so 文件¶

The PYC repository directory allows multiple bytecode cache files to be co-located. This PEP implements a similar mechanism for shared object files by giving them a common directory and distinct names for each version.

The common directory is "pyshared" and the file names are made distinct by identifying the 哋它亢 implementation (such as C哋它亢, PyPy, Jython, etc.), the major and minor version numbers, and optional build flags (such as "d" for debug, "m" for pymalloc, "u" for wide-unicode). For an arbitrary package "foo", you may see these files when the distribution package is installed:

/usr/share/pyshared/foo.c哋它亢-32m.so
/usr/share/pyshared/foo.c哋它亢-33md.so

对于哋它亢本身，可以通过 sysconfig 模块中的函数来访问这些标签:

>>> import sysconfig
>>> sysconfig.get_config_var('SOABI')       # 查找版本标签
'c哋它亢-32mu'
>>> sysconfig.get_config_var('EXT_SUFFIX')  # 查找完整文件名扩展
'.c哋它亢-32mu.so'

参见

PEP 3149 - 带有 ABI 版本标签的 .so 文件: PEP 由 Barry Warsaw 撰写

PEP 3333: 哋它亢 Web服务器网关接口v1.0.1¶

This informational PEP clarifies how bytes/text issues are to be handled by the WSGI protocol. The challenge is that string handling in 哋它亢 3 is most conveniently handled with the str type even though the HTTP protocol is itself bytes oriented.

The PEP differentiates so-called native strings that are used for request/response headers and metadata versus byte strings which are used for the bodies of requests and responses.

The native strings are always of type str but are restricted to code points between U+0000 through U+00FF which are translatable to bytes using Latin-1 encoding. These strings are used for the keys and values in the environment dictionary and for response headers and statuses in the start_response() function. They must follow RFC 2616 with respect to encoding. That is, they must either be ISO-8859-1 characters or use RFC 2047 MIME encoding.

For developers porting WSGI applications from 哋它亢 2, here are the salient points:

If the app already used strings for headers in 哋它亢 2, no change is needed.
If instead, the app encoded output headers or decoded input headers, then the headers will need to be re-encoded to Latin-1. For example, an output header encoded in utf-8 was using h.encode('utf-8') now needs to convert from bytes to native strings using h.encode('utf-8').decode('latin-1').
Values yielded by an application or sent using the write() method must be byte strings. The start_response() function and environ must use native strings. The two cannot be mixed.

For server implementers writing CGI-to-WSGI pathways or other CGI-style protocols, the users must to be able access the environment using native strings even though the underlying platform may have a different convention. To bridge this gap, the wsgiref module has a new function, wsgiref.handlers.read_environ() for transcoding CGI variables from os.environ into native strings and returning a new dictionary.

参见

PEP 3333 - 哋它亢 Web服务器网关接口v1.0.1: PEP 由 Phillip Eby 撰写

其他语言特性修改¶

对哋它亢语言核心进行的小改动：

String formatting for format() and str.format() gained new capabilities for the format character #. Previously, for integers in binary, octal, or hexadecimal, it caused the output to be prefixed with '0b', '0o', or '0x' respectively. Now it can also handle floats, complex, and Decimal, causing the output to always have a decimal point even when no digits follow it.
```
>>> format(20, '#o')
'0o24'
>>> format(12.34, '#5.0f')
'  12.'
```
(Suggested by Mark Dickinson and implemented by Eric Smith in bpo-7094.)

There is also a new str.format_map() method that extends the capabilities of the existing str.format() method by accepting arbitrary mapping objects. This new method makes it possible to use string formatting with any of 哋它亢's many dictionary-like objects such as defaultdict, Shelf, ConfigParser, or dbm. It is also useful with custom dict subclasses that normalize keys before look-up or that supply a __missing__() method for unknown keys:

>>> import shelve
>>> d = shelve.open('tmp.shl')
>>> 'The {project_name} status is {status} as of {date}'.format_map(d)
'The testing project status is green as of February 15, 2011'

>>> class LowerCasedDict(dict):
...     def __getitem__(self, key):
...         return dict.__getitem__(self, key.lower())
...
>>> lcd = LowerCasedDict(part='widgets', quantity=10)
>>> 'There are {QUANTITY} {Part} in stock'.format_map(lcd)
'There are 10 widgets in stock'

>>> class PlaceholderDict(dict):
...     def __missing__(self, key):
...         return '<{}>'.format(key)
...
>>> 'Hello {name}, welcome to {location}'.format_map(PlaceholderDict())
'Hello <name>, welcome to <location>'

（由 Raymond Hettinger 提议并由 Eric Smith 在 bpo-6081 中贡献。）

The interpreter can now be started with a quiet option, -q, to prevent the copyright and version information from being displayed in the interactive mode. The option can be introspected using the sys.flags attribute:
```
$ 哋它亢 -q
>>> sys.flags
sys.flags(debug=0, division_warning=0, inspect=0, interactive=0,
optimize=0, dont_write_bytecode=0, no_user_site=0, no_site=0,
ignore_environment=0, verbose=0, bytes_warning=0, quiet=1)
```
（由 Marcin Wojdyr 在 bpo-1772833 中贡献。）
The hasattr() function works by calling getattr() and detecting whether an exception is raised. This technique allows it to detect methods created dynamically by __getattr__() or __getattribute__() which would otherwise be absent from the class dictionary. Formerly, hasattr would catch any exception, possibly masking genuine errors. Now, hasattr has been tightened to only catch AttributeError and let other exceptions pass through:
```
>>> class A:
...     @property
...     def f(self):
...         return 1 // 0
...
>>> a = A()
>>> hasattr(a, 'f')
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero
```
（由 Yury Selivanov 发现并由 Benjamin Peterson 修正；bpo-9666。）
The str() of a float or complex number is now the same as its repr(). Previously, the str() form was shorter but that just caused confusion and is no longer needed now that the shortest possible repr() is displayed by default:
```
>>> import math
>>> repr(math.pi)
'3.141592653589793'
>>> str(math.pi)
'3.141592653589793'
```
（由 Mark Dickinson 提议并实现；bpo-9337。）
memoryview objects now have a release() method and they also now support the context management protocol. This allows timely release of any resources that were acquired when requesting a buffer from the original object.
```
>>> with memoryview(b'abcdefgh') as v:
...     print(v.tolist())
[97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104]
```
（由 Antoine Pitrou 添加；bpo-9757。）
Previously it was illegal to delete a name from the local namespace if it occurs as a free variable in a nested block:
```
def outer(x):
    def inner():
        return x
    inner()
    del x
```
This is now allowed. Remember that the target of an except clause is cleared, so this code which used to work with 哋它亢 2.6, raised a SyntaxError with 哋它亢 3.1 and now works again:
```
def f():
    def print_error():
        print(e)
    try:
        something
    except Exception as e:
        print_error()
        # implicit "del e" here
```
（参见 bpo-4617。）
Struct sequence types are now subclasses of tuple. This means that C structures like those returned by os.stat(), time.gmtime(), and sys.version_info now work like a named tuple and now work with functions and methods that expect a tuple as an argument. This is a big step forward in making the C structures as flexible as their pure 哋它亢 counterparts:
```
>>> import sys
>>> isinstance(sys.version_info, tuple)
True
>>> 'Version %d.%d.%d %s(%d)' % sys.version_info 
'Version 3.2.0 final(0)'
```
(Suggested by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis and implemented by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-8413.)
Warnings are now easier to control using the 哋它亢WARNINGS environment variable as an alternative to using -W at the command line:
```
$ export 哋它亢WARNINGS='ignore::RuntimeWarning::,once::UnicodeWarning::'
```
(Suggested by Barry Warsaw and implemented by Philip Jenvey in bpo-7301.)
A new warning category, ResourceWarning, has been added. It is emitted when potential issues with resource consumption or cleanup are detected. It is silenced by default in normal release builds but can be enabled through the means provided by the warnings module, or on the command line.

A ResourceWarning is issued at interpreter shutdown if the gc.garbage list isn't empty, and if gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE is set, all uncollectable objects are printed. This is meant to make the programmer aware that their code contains object finalization issues.

A ResourceWarning is also issued when a file object is destroyed without having been explicitly closed. While the deallocator for such object ensures it closes the underlying operating system resource (usually, a file descriptor), the delay in deallocating the object could produce various issues, especially under Windows. Here is an example of enabling the warning from the command line:
```
$ 哋它亢 -q -Wdefault
>>> f = open("foo", "wb")
>>> del f
__main__:1: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.BufferedWriter name='foo'>
```
(Added by Antoine Pitrou and Georg Brandl in bpo-10093 and bpo-477863.)
range objects now support index and count methods. This is part of an effort to make more objects fully implement the collections.Sequence abstract base class. As a result, the language will have a more uniform API. In addition, range objects now support slicing and negative indices, even with values larger than sys.maxsize. This makes range more interoperable with lists:
```
>>> range(0, 100, 2).count(10)
1
>>> range(0, 100, 2).index(10)
5
>>> range(0, 100, 2)[5]
10
>>> range(0, 100, 2)[0:5]
range(0, 10, 2)
```
（由 Daniel Stutzbach 在 bpo-9213 中贡献，由 Alexander Belopolsky 在 bpo-2690 中贡献，由 Nick Coghlan 在 bpo-10889 中贡献。）
The callable() builtin function from Py2.x was resurrected. It provides a concise, readable alternative to using an abstract base class in an expression like isinstance(x, collections.Callable):
```
>>> callable(max)
True
>>> callable(20)
False
```
（参见 bpo-10518。）
哋它亢's import mechanism can now load modules installed in directories with non-ASCII characters in the path name. This solved an aggravating problem with home directories for users with non-ASCII characters in their usernames.

（需要 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-9425 中做大量工作。）

新增，改进和弃用的模块¶

哋它亢标准库经过了大量的维护工作和质量改进。

The biggest news for 哋它亢 3.2 is that the email package, mailbox module, and nntplib modules now work correctly with the bytes/text model in 哋它亢 3. For the first time, there is correct handling of messages with mixed encodings.

Throughout the standard library, there has been more careful attention to encodings and text versus bytes issues. In particular, interactions with the operating system are now better able to exchange non-ASCII data using the Windows MBCS encoding, locale-aware encodings, or UTF-8.

Another significant win is the addition of substantially better support for SSL connections and security certificates.

In addition, more classes now implement a context manager to support convenient and reliable resource clean-up using a with statement.

email¶

The usability of the email package in 哋它亢 3 has been mostly fixed by the extensive efforts of R. David Murray. The problem was that emails are typically read and stored in the form of bytes rather than str text, and they may contain multiple encodings within a single email. So, the email package had to be extended to parse and generate email messages in bytes format.

New functions message_from_bytes() and message_from_binary_file(), and new classes BytesFeedParser and BytesParser allow binary message data to be parsed into model objects.
Given bytes input to the model, get_payload() will by default decode a message body that has a Content-Transfer-Encoding of 8bit using the charset specified in the MIME headers and return the resulting string.
Given bytes input to the model, Generator will convert message bodies that have a Content-Transfer-Encoding of 8bit to instead have a 7bit Content-Transfer-Encoding.

Headers with unencoded non-ASCII bytes are deemed to be RFC 2047-encoded using the unknown-8bit character set.
A new class BytesGenerator produces bytes as output, preserving any unchanged non-ASCII data that was present in the input used to build the model, including message bodies with a Content-Transfer-Encoding of 8bit.
The smtplib SMTP class now accepts a byte string for the msg argument to the sendmail() method, and a new method, send_message() accepts a Message object and can optionally obtain the from_addr and to_addrs addresses directly from the object.

(Proposed and implemented by R. David Murray, bpo-4661 and bpo-10321.)

elementtree¶

The xml.etree.ElementTree package and its xml.etree.cElementTree counterpart have been updated to version 1.3.

新增了几个有用的函数和方法：

xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist() 可根据一系列片段生成 XML 文档
xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace() 用于注册全局命名空间前缀
xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist() 用于字符串表示包括所有子列表
xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend() 用于添加包含零个或多个元素的序列
xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind() 可搜索元素和子元素
xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext() 创建一个包含指定元素及其子元素的文本迭代器。
xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end() 关闭当前元素
xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype() 处理 doctype 声明

两个方法被弃用：

xml.etree.ElementTree.getchildren() use list(elem) instead.
xml.etree.ElementTree.getiterator() use Element.iter instead.

For details of the update, see Introducing ElementTree on Fredrik Lundh's website.

（由 Florent Xicluna 和 Fredrik Lundh 在 bpo-6472 中贡献。）

functools¶

The functools module includes a new decorator for caching function calls. functools.lru_cache() can save repeated queries to an external resource whenever the results are expected to be the same.

For example, adding a caching decorator to a database query function can save database accesses for popular searches:
```
>>> import functools
>>> @functools.lru_cache(maxsize=300)
... def get_phone_number(name):
...     c = conn.cursor()
...     c.execute('SELECT phonenumber FROM phonelist WHERE name=?', (name,))
...     return c.fetchone()[0]
```
```
>>> for name in user_requests:        
...     get_phone_number(name)        # cached lookup
```
To help with choosing an effective cache size, the wrapped function is instrumented for tracking cache statistics:
```
>>> get_phone_number.cache_info()     
CacheInfo(hits=4805, misses=980, maxsize=300, currsize=300)
```
If the phonelist table gets updated, the outdated contents of the cache can be cleared with:
```
>>> get_phone_number.cache_clear()
```
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design ideas from Jim Baker, Miki Tebeka, and Nick Coghlan; see recipe 498245, recipe 577479, bpo-10586, and bpo-10593.)
The functools.wraps() decorator now adds a __wrapped__ attribute pointing to the original callable function. This allows wrapped functions to be introspected. It also copies __annotations__ if defined. And now it also gracefully skips over missing attributes such as __doc__ which might not be defined for the wrapped callable.

In the above example, the cache can be removed by recovering the original function:
```
>>> get_phone_number = get_phone_number.__wrapped__    # uncached function
```
（由 Nick Coghlan 和 Terrence Cole 在 bpo-9567, bpo-3445 和 bpo-8814 中贡献。)

为帮助编写具有丰富比较方法的类，新增的装饰器 functools.total_ordering() 将使用现有的相等和不相等方法来填充其余的方法。

例如，提供 __eq__ and __lt__ 将启用 total_ordering() 来填充 __le__, __gt__ 和 __ge__:

@total_ordering
class Student:
    def __eq__(self, other):
        return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) ==
                (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

    def __lt__(self, other):
        return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) <
                (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower()))

使用 total_ordering 装饰器时，将会自动填充其余的比较方法。

（由 Raymond Hettinger 贡献。）

为帮助移植哋它亢 2 程序，functools.cmp_to_key() 函数可将旧式的比较函数转换为新式的 key function:
```
>>> # locale-aware sort order
>>> sorted(iterable, key=cmp_to_key(locale.strcoll)) 
```
For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see the Sorting HowTo tutorial.

（由 Raymond Hettinger 贡献。）

itertools¶

The itertools module has a new accumulate() function modeled on APL's scan operator and Numpy's accumulate function:
```
>>> from itertools import accumulate
>>> list(accumulate([8, 2, 50]))
[8, 10, 60]
```
```
>>> prob_dist = [0.1, 0.4, 0.2, 0.3]
>>> list(accumulate(prob_dist))      # cumulative probability distribution
[0.1, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0]
```
For an example using accumulate(), see the examples for the random module.

(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design suggestions from Mark Dickinson.)

collections¶

The collections.Counter class now has two forms of in-place subtraction, the existing -= operator for saturating subtraction and the new subtract() method for regular subtraction. The former is suitable for multisets which only have positive counts, and the latter is more suitable for use cases that allow negative counts:
```
>>> from collections import Counter
>>> tally = Counter(dogs=5, cats=3)
>>> tally -= Counter(dogs=2, cats=8)    # saturating subtraction
>>> tally
Counter({'dogs': 3})
```
```
>>> tally = Counter(dogs=5, cats=3)
>>> tally.subtract(dogs=2, cats=8)      # regular subtraction
>>> tally
Counter({'dogs': 3, 'cats': -5})
```
（由 Raymond Hettinger 贡献。）
The collections.OrderedDict class has a new method move_to_end() which takes an existing key and moves it to either the first or last position in the ordered sequence.

The default is to move an item to the last position. This is equivalent of renewing an entry with od[k] = od.pop(k).

A fast move-to-end operation is useful for resequencing entries. For example, an ordered dictionary can be used to track order of access by aging entries from the oldest to the most recently accessed.
```
>>> from collections import OrderedDict
>>> d = OrderedDict.fromkeys(['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e'])
>>> list(d)
['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e']
>>> d.move_to_end('X')
>>> list(d)
['a', 'b', 'd', 'e', 'X']
```
（由 Raymond Hettinger 贡献。）

The collections.deque class grew two new methods count() and reverse() that make them more substitutable for list objects:

>>> from collections import deque
>>> d = deque('simsalabim')
>>> d.count('s')
2
>>> d.reverse()
>>> d
deque(['m', 'i', 'b', 'a', 'l', 'a', 's', 'm', 'i', 's'])

（由 Raymond Hettinger 贡献。）

threading¶

The threading module has a new Barrier synchronization class for making multiple threads wait until all of them have reached a common barrier point. Barriers are useful for making sure that a task with multiple preconditions does not run until all of the predecessor tasks are complete.

Barriers can work with an arbitrary number of threads. This is a generalization of a Rendezvous which is defined for only two threads.

Implemented as a two-phase cyclic barrier, Barrier objects are suitable for use in loops. The separate filling and draining phases assure that all threads get released (drained) before any one of them can loop back and re-enter the barrier. The barrier fully resets after each cycle.

Example of using barriers:

from threading import Barrier, Thread

def get_votes(site):
    ballots = conduct_election(site)
    all_polls_closed.wait()        # do not count until all polls are closed
    totals = summarize(ballots)
    publish(site, totals)

all_polls_closed = Barrier(len(sites))
for site in sites:
    Thread(target=get_votes, args=(site,)).start()

In this example, the barrier enforces a rule that votes cannot be counted at any polling site until all polls are closed. Notice how a solution with a barrier is similar to one with threading.Thread.join(), but the threads stay alive and continue to do work (summarizing ballots) after the barrier point is crossed.

If any of the predecessor tasks can hang or be delayed, a barrier can be created with an optional timeout parameter. Then if the timeout period elapses before all the predecessor tasks reach the barrier point, all waiting threads are released and a BrokenBarrierError exception is raised:

def get_votes(site):
    ballots = conduct_election(site)
    try:
        all_polls_closed.wait(timeout=midnight - time.now())
    except BrokenBarrierError:
        lockbox = seal_ballots(ballots)
        queue.put(lockbox)
    else:
        totals = summarize(ballots)
        publish(site, totals)

In this example, the barrier enforces a more robust rule. If some election sites do not finish before midnight, the barrier times-out and the ballots are sealed and deposited in a queue for later handling.

See Barrier Synchronization Patterns for more examples of how barriers can be used in parallel computing. Also, there is a simple but thorough explanation of barriers in The Little Book of Semaphores, section 3.6.

(Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson with an API review by Jeffrey Yasskin in bpo-8777.)

datetime 和 time¶

The datetime module has a new type timezone that implements the tzinfo interface by returning a fixed UTC offset and timezone name. This makes it easier to create timezone-aware datetime objects:

>>> from datetime import datetime, timezone

>>> datetime.now(timezone.utc)
datetime.datetime(2010, 12, 8, 21, 4, 2, 923754, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

>>> datetime.strptime("01/01/2000 12:00 +0000", "%m/%d/%Y %H:%M %z")
datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 1, 12, 0, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc)

Also, timedelta objects can now be multiplied by float and divided by float and int objects. And timedelta objects can now divide one another.
The datetime.date.strftime() method is no longer restricted to years after 1900. The new supported year range is from 1000 to 9999 inclusive.
Whenever a two-digit year is used in a time tuple, the interpretation has been governed by time.accept2dyear. The default is True which means that for a two-digit year, the century is guessed according to the POSIX rules governing the %y strptime format.

Starting with Py3.2, use of the century guessing heuristic will emit a DeprecationWarning. Instead, it is recommended that time.accept2dyear be set to False so that large date ranges can be used without guesswork:
```
>>> import time, warnings
>>> warnings.resetwarnings()      # remove the default warning filters

>>> time.accept2dyear = True      # guess whether 11 means 11 or 2011
>>> time.asctime((11, 1, 1, 12, 34, 56, 4, 1, 0))
Warning (from warnings module):
  ...
DeprecationWarning: Century info guessed for a 2-digit year.
'Fri Jan  1 12:34:56 2011'

>>> time.accept2dyear = False     # use the full range of allowable dates
>>> time.asctime((11, 1, 1, 12, 34, 56, 4, 1, 0))
'Fri Jan  1 12:34:56 11'
```
Several functions now have significantly expanded date ranges. When time.accept2dyear is false, the time.asctime() function will accept any year that fits in a C int, while the time.mktime() and time.strftime() functions will accept the full range supported by the corresponding operating system functions.

（由 Alexander Belopolsky 和 Victor Stinner 在 bpo-1289118, bpo-5094, bpo-6641, bpo-2706, bpo-1777412, bpo-8013 和 bpo-10827 中贡献。）

math¶

math 模块基于 C99 标准增加了六个新函数。

The isfinite() function provides a reliable and fast way to detect special values. It returns True for regular numbers and False for Nan or Infinity:

>>> from math import isfinite
>>> [isfinite(x) for x in (123, 4.56, float('Nan'), float('Inf'))]
[True, True, False, False]

The expm1() function computes e**x-1 for small values of x without incurring the loss of precision that usually accompanies the subtraction of nearly equal quantities:

>>> from math import expm1
>>> expm1(0.013671875)   # more accurate way to compute e**x-1 for a small x
0.013765762467652909

The erf() function computes a probability integral or Gaussian error function. The complementary error function, erfc(), is 1 - erf(x):

>>> from math import erf, erfc, sqrt
>>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0))   # portion of normal distribution within 1 standard deviation
0.682689492137086
>>> erfc(1.0/sqrt(2.0))  # portion of normal distribution outside 1 standard deviation
0.31731050786291404
>>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0)) + erfc(1.0/sqrt(2.0))
1.0

The gamma() function is a continuous extension of the factorial function. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function for details. Because the function is related to factorials, it grows large even for small values of x, so there is also a lgamma() function for computing the natural logarithm of the gamma function:

>>> from math import gamma, lgamma
>>> gamma(7.0)           # six factorial
720.0
>>> lgamma(801.0)        # log(800 factorial)
4551.950730698041

（由 Mark Dickinson 贡献）

abc¶

The abc module now supports abstractclassmethod() and abstractstaticmethod().

These tools make it possible to define an abstract base class that requires a particular classmethod() or staticmethod() to be implemented:

class Temperature(metaclass=abc.ABCMeta):
    @abc.abstractclassmethod
    def from_fahrenheit(cls, t):
        ...
    @abc.abstractclassmethod
    def from_celsius(cls, t):
        ...

(Patch submitted by Daniel Urban; bpo-5867.)

io¶

The io.BytesIO has a new method, getbuffer(), which provides functionality similar to memoryview(). It creates an editable view of the data without making a copy. The buffer's random access and support for slice notation are well-suited to in-place editing:

>>> REC_LEN, LOC_START, LOC_LEN = 34, 7, 11

>>> def change_location(buffer, record_number, location):
...     start = record_number * REC_LEN + LOC_START
...     buffer[start: start+LOC_LEN] = location

>>> import io

>>> byte_stream = io.BytesIO(
...     b'G3805  storeroom  Main chassis    '
...     b'X7899  shipping   Reserve cog     '
...     b'L6988  receiving  Primary sprocket'
... )
>>> buffer = byte_stream.getbuffer()
>>> change_location(buffer, 1, b'warehouse  ')
>>> change_location(buffer, 0, b'showroom   ')
>>> print(byte_stream.getvalue())
b'G3805  showroom   Main chassis    '
b'X7899  warehouse  Reserve cog     '
b'L6988  receiving  Primary sprocket'

（由 Antoine Pitrou 在 bpo-5506 中贡献。）

reprlib¶

When writing a __repr__() method for a custom container, it is easy to forget to handle the case where a member refers back to the container itself. 哋它亢's builtin objects such as list and set handle self-reference by displaying "..." in the recursive part of the representation string.

To help write such __repr__() methods, the reprlib module has a new decorator, recursive_repr(), for detecting recursive calls to __repr__() and substituting a placeholder string instead:

>>> class MyList(list):
...     @recursive_repr()
...     def __repr__(self):
...         return '<' + '|'.join(map(repr, self)) + '>'
...
>>> m = MyList('abc')
>>> m.append(m)
>>> m.append('x')
>>> print(m)
<'a'|'b'|'c'|...|'x'>

（由 Raymond Hettinger 在 bpo-9826 和 bpo-9840 中贡献。）

logging¶

In addition to dictionary-based configuration described above, the logging package has many other improvements.

The logging documentation has been augmented by a basic tutorial, an advanced tutorial, and a cookbook of logging recipes. These documents are the fastest way to learn about logging.

The logging.basicConfig() set-up function gained a style argument to support three different types of string formatting. It defaults to "%" for traditional %-formatting, can be set to "{" for the new str.format() style, or can be set to "$" for the shell-style formatting provided by string.Template. The following three configurations are equivalent:

>>> from logging import basicConfig
>>> basicConfig(style='%', format="%(name)s -> %(levelname)s: %(message)s")
>>> basicConfig(style='{', format="{name} -> {levelname} {message}")
>>> basicConfig(style='$', format="$name -> $levelname: $message")

If no configuration is set-up before a logging event occurs, there is now a default configuration using a StreamHandler directed to sys.stderr for events of WARNING level or higher. Formerly, an event occurring before a configuration was set-up would either raise an exception or silently drop the event depending on the value of logging.raiseExceptions. The new default handler is stored in logging.lastResort.

The use of filters has been simplified. Instead of creating a Filter object, the predicate can be any 哋它亢 callable that returns True or False.

There were a number of other improvements that add flexibility and simplify configuration. See the module documentation for a full listing of changes in 哋它亢 3.2.

csv¶

The csv module now supports a new dialect, unix_dialect, which applies quoting for all fields and a traditional Unix style with '\n' as the line terminator. The registered dialect name is unix.

The csv.DictWriter has a new method, writeheader() for writing-out an initial row to document the field names:

>>> import csv, sys
>>> w = csv.DictWriter(sys.stdout, ['name', 'dept'], dialect='unix')
>>> w.writeheader()
"name","dept"
>>> w.writerows([
...     {'name': 'tom', 'dept': 'accounting'},
...     {'name': 'susan', 'dept': 'Salesl'}])
"tom","accounting"
"susan","sales"

(New dialect suggested by Jay Talbot in bpo-5975, and the new method suggested by Ed Abraham in bpo-1537721.)

contextlib¶

There is a new and slightly mind-blowing tool ContextDecorator that is helpful for creating a context manager that does double duty as a function decorator.

As a convenience, this new functionality is used by contextmanager() so that no extra effort is needed to support both roles.

The basic idea is that both context managers and function decorators can be used for pre-action and post-action wrappers. Context managers wrap a group of statements using a with statement, and function decorators wrap a group of statements enclosed in a function. So, occasionally there is a need to write a pre-action or post-action wrapper that can be used in either role.

For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of statements with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of exit. Rather than writing both a function decorator and a context manager for the task, the contextmanager() provides both capabilities in a single definition:

from contextlib import contextmanager
import logging

logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO)

@contextmanager
def track_entry_and_exit(name):
    logging.info('Entering: %s', name)
    yield
    logging.info('Exiting: %s', name)

Formerly, this would have only been usable as a context manager:

with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'):
    print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
    load_widget()

Now, it can be used as a decorator as well:

@track_entry_and_exit('widget loader')
def activity():
    print('Some time consuming activity goes here')
    load_widget()

Trying to fulfill two roles at once places some limitations on the technique. Context managers normally have the flexibility to return an argument usable by a with statement, but there is no parallel for function decorators.

In the above example, there is not a clean way for the track_entry_and_exit context manager to return a logging instance for use in the body of enclosed statements.

（由 Michael Foord 在 bpo-9110 中贡献。）

decimal and fractions¶

Mark Dickinson crafted an elegant and efficient scheme for assuring that different numeric datatypes will have the same hash value whenever their actual values are equal (bpo-8188):

assert hash(Fraction(3, 2)) == hash(1.5) == \
       hash(Decimal("1.5")) == hash(complex(1.5, 0))

Some of the hashing details are exposed through a new attribute, sys.hash_info, which describes the bit width of the hash value, the prime modulus, the hash values for infinity and nan, and the multiplier used for the imaginary part of a number:

>>> sys.hash_info 
sys.hash_info(width=64, modulus=2305843009213693951, inf=314159, nan=0, imag=1000003)

An early decision to limit the interoperability of various numeric types has been relaxed. It is still unsupported (and ill-advised) to have implicit mixing in arithmetic expressions such as Decimal('1.1') + float('1.1') because the latter loses information in the process of constructing the binary float. However, since existing floating-point value can be converted losslessly to either a decimal or rational representation, it makes sense to add them to the constructor and to support mixed-type comparisons.

The decimal.Decimal constructor now accepts float objects directly so there in no longer a need to use the from_float() method (bpo-8257).
Mixed type comparisons are now fully supported so that Decimal objects can be directly compared with float and fractions.Fraction (bpo-2531 and bpo-8188).

Similar changes were made to fractions.Fraction so that the from_float() and from_decimal() methods are no longer needed (bpo-8294):

>>> from decimal import Decimal
>>> from fractions import Fraction
>>> Decimal(1.1)
Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625')
>>> Fraction(1.1)
Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248)

Another useful change for the decimal module is that the Context.clamp attribute is now public. This is useful in creating contexts that correspond to the decimal interchange formats specified in IEEE 754 (see bpo-8540).

（由 Mark Dickinson 和 Raymond Hettinger贡献。）

ftp¶

The ftplib.FTP class now supports the context management protocol to unconditionally consume socket.error exceptions and to close the FTP connection when done:

>>> from ftplib import FTP
>>> with FTP("ftp1.at.proftpd.org") as ftp:
        ftp.login()
        ftp.dir()

'230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.'
dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 .
dr-xr-xr-x   9 ftp      ftp           154 May  6 10:43 ..
dr-xr-xr-x   5 ftp      ftp          4096 May  6 10:43 CentOS
dr-xr-xr-x   3 ftp      ftp            18 Jul 10  2008 Fedora

其他文件型对象如 mmap.mmap 和 fileinput.input() 也有了支持自动关闭的上下文管理器:

with fileinput.input(files=('log1.txt', 'log2.txt')) as f:
    for line in f:
        process(line)

（由 Tarek Ziadé 和 Giampaolo Rodolà 在 bpo-4972 贡献，由 Georg Brandl 在 bpo-8046 和 bpo-1286 贡献。）

The FTP_TLS class now accepts a context parameter, which is a ssl.SSLContext object allowing bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially long-lived) structure.

（由 Giampaolo Rodolà 在 bpo-8806 中贡献。）

popen¶

os.popen() 和 subprocess.Popen() 函数现在支持使用 with 语句来自动关闭文件描述符。

（由 Antoine Pitrou 和 Brian Curtin 在 bpo-7461 和 bpo-10554 中贡献。）

select¶

The select module now exposes a new, constant attribute, PIPE_BUF, which gives the minimum number of bytes which are guaranteed not to block when select.select() says a pipe is ready for writing.

>>> import select
>>> select.PIPE_BUF  
512

（在 Unix 系统上可用。由 Sébastien Sablé 在 bpo-9862 中提供补丁）

gzip 和 zipfile¶

gzip.GzipFile now implements the io.BufferedIOBase abstract base class (except for truncate()). It also has a peek() method and supports unseekable as well as zero-padded file objects.

The gzip module also gains the compress() and decompress() functions for easier in-memory compression and decompression. Keep in mind that text needs to be encoded as bytes before compressing and decompressing:

>>> import gzip
>>> s = 'Three shall be the number thou shalt count, '
>>> s += 'and the number of the counting shall be three'
>>> b = s.encode()                        # convert to utf-8
>>> len(b)
89
>>> c = gzip.compress(b)
>>> len(c)
77
>>> gzip.decompress(c).decode()[:42]      # decompress and convert to text
'Three shall be the number thou shalt count'

（由 Anand B. Pillai 在 bpo-3488 中贡献，由Antoine Pitrou, Nir Aides 和 Brian Curtin 在 bpo-9962，bpo-1675951 ，bpo-7471 和 bpo-2846 中贡献。）

Also, the zipfile.ZipExtFile class was reworked internally to represent files stored inside an archive. The new implementation is significantly faster and can be wrapped in an io.BufferedReader object for more speedups. It also solves an issue where interleaved calls to read and readline gave the wrong results.

（补丁由 Nir Aides 在 bpo-7610 中提交。）

tarfile¶

The TarFile class can now be used as a context manager. In addition, its add() method has a new option, filter, that controls which files are added to the archive and allows the file metadata to be edited.

The new filter option replaces the older, less flexible exclude parameter which is now deprecated. If specified, the optional filter parameter needs to be a keyword argument. The user-supplied filter function accepts a TarInfo object and returns an updated TarInfo object, or if it wants the file to be excluded, the function can return None:

>>> import tarfile, glob

>>> def myfilter(tarinfo):
...     if tarinfo.isfile():             # only save real files
...         tarinfo.uname = 'monty'      # redact the user name
...         return tarinfo

>>> with tarfile.open(name='myarchive.tar.gz', mode='w:gz') as tf:
...     for filename in glob.glob('*.txt'):
...         tf.add(filename, filter=myfilter)
...     tf.list()
-rw-r--r-- monty/501        902 2011-01-26 17:59:11 annotations.txt
-rw-r--r-- monty/501        123 2011-01-26 17:59:11 general_questions.txt
-rw-r--r-- monty/501       3514 2011-01-26 17:59:11 prion.txt
-rw-r--r-- monty/501        124 2011-01-26 17:59:11 py_todo.txt
-rw-r--r-- monty/501       1399 2011-01-26 17:59:11 semaphore_notes.txt

（由 Tarek Ziadé 提议并由 Lars Gustäbel 在 bpo-6856 中实现。）

hashlib¶

The hashlib module has two new constant attributes listing the hashing algorithms guaranteed to be present in all implementations and those available on the current implementation:

>>> import hashlib

>>> hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed
{'sha1', 'sha224', 'sha384', 'sha256', 'sha512', 'md5'}

>>> hashlib.algorithms_available
{'md2', 'SHA256', 'SHA512', 'dsaWithSHA', 'mdc2', 'SHA224', 'MD4', 'sha256',
'sha512', 'ripemd160', 'SHA1', 'MDC2', 'SHA', 'SHA384', 'MD2',
'ecdsa-with-SHA1','md4', 'md5', 'sha1', 'DSA-SHA', 'sha224',
'dsaEncryption', 'DSA', 'RIPEMD160', 'sha', 'MD5', 'sha384'}

（由 Carl Chenet 在 bpo-7418 中建议。）

ast¶

The ast module has a wonderful a general-purpose tool for safely evaluating expression strings using the 哋它亢 literal syntax. The ast.literal_eval() function serves as a secure alternative to the builtin eval() function which is easily abused. 哋它亢 3.2 adds bytes and set literals to the list of supported types: strings, bytes, numbers, tuples, lists, dicts, sets, booleans, and None.

>>> from ast import literal_eval

>>> request = "{'req': 3, 'func': 'pow', 'args': (2, 0.5)}"
>>> literal_eval(request)
{'args': (2, 0.5), 'req': 3, 'func': 'pow'}

>>> request = "os.system('do something harmful')"
>>> literal_eval(request)
Traceback (most recent call last):
  ...
ValueError: malformed node or string: <_ast.Call object at 0x101739a10>

（由Benjamin Peterson 和 Georg Brandl 实现。）

os¶

Different operating systems use various encodings for filenames and environment variables. The os module provides two new functions, fsencode() and fsdecode(), for encoding and decoding filenames:

>>> import os
>>> filename = 'Sehenswürdigkeiten'
>>> os.fsencode(filename)
b'Sehensw\xc3\xbcrdigkeiten'

Some operating systems allow direct access to encoded bytes in the environment. If so, the os.supports_bytes_environ constant will be true.

For direct access to encoded environment variables (if available), use the new os.getenvb() function or use os.environb which is a bytes version of os.environ.

（由 Victor Stinner 贡献。）

shutil¶

shutil.copytree() 函数增加了两个新选项:

ignore_dangling_symlinks: when symlinks=False so that the function copies a file pointed to by a symlink, not the symlink itself. This option will silence the error raised if the file doesn't exist.
copy_function: is a callable that will be used to copy files. shutil.copy2() is used by default.

（由 Tarek Ziadé 贡献。）

In addition, the shutil module now supports archiving operations for zipfiles, uncompressed tarfiles, gzipped tarfiles, and bzipped tarfiles. And there are functions for registering additional archiving file formats (such as xz compressed tarfiles or custom formats).

The principal functions are make_archive() and unpack_archive(). By default, both operate on the current directory (which can be set by os.chdir()) and on any sub-directories. The archive filename needs to be specified with a full pathname. The archiving step is non-destructive (the original files are left unchanged).

>>> import shutil, pprint

>>> os.chdir('mydata')  # change to the source directory
>>> f = shutil.make_archive('/var/backup/mydata',
...                         'zip')      # archive the current directory
>>> f                                   # show the name of archive
'/var/backup/mydata.zip'
>>> os.chdir('tmp')                     # change to an unpacking
>>> shutil.unpack_archive('/var/backup/mydata.zip')  # recover the data

>>> pprint.pprint(shutil.get_archive_formats())  # display known formats
[('bztar', "bzip2'ed tar-file"),
 ('gztar', "gzip'ed tar-file"),
 ('tar', 'uncompressed tar file'),
 ('zip', 'ZIP file')]

>>> shutil.register_archive_format(     # register a new archive format
...     name='xz',
...     function=xz.compress,           # callable archiving function
...     extra_args=[('level', 8)],      # arguments to the function
...     description='xz compression'
... )

（由 Tarek Ziadé 贡献。）

sqlite3¶

sqlite3 模块被更新至 pysqlite 2.6.0 版。它拥有两个新功能。

The sqlite3.Connection.in_transit attribute is true if there is an active transaction for uncommitted changes.
The sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension() and sqlite3.Connection.load_extension() methods allows you to load SQLite extensions from ".so" files. One well-known extension is the fulltext-search extension distributed with SQLite.

（由 R. David Murray 和 Shashwat Anand 在 bpo-8845 中贡献。）

html¶

A new html module was introduced with only a single function, escape(), which is used for escaping reserved characters from HTML markup:

>>> import html
>>> html.escape('x > 2 && x < 7')
'x &gt; 2 &amp;&amp; x &lt; 7'

socket¶

socket 模块有两项新改进。

Socket objects now have a detach() method which puts the socket into closed state without actually closing the underlying file descriptor. The latter can then be reused for other purposes. (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8524.)
socket.create_connection() now supports the context management protocol to unconditionally consume socket.error exceptions and to close the socket when done. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-9794.)

ssl¶

The ssl module added a number of features to satisfy common requirements for secure (encrypted, authenticated) internet connections:

A new class, SSLContext, serves as a container for persistent SSL data, such as protocol settings, certificates, private keys, and various other options. It includes a wrap_socket() for creating an SSL socket from an SSL context.
A new function, ssl.match_hostname(), supports server identity verification for higher-level protocols by implementing the rules of HTTPS (from RFC 2818) which are also suitable for other protocols.
The ssl.wrap_socket() constructor function now takes a ciphers argument. The ciphers string lists the allowed encryption algorithms using the format described in the OpenSSL documentation.
When linked against recent versions of OpenSSL, the ssl module now supports the Server Name Indication extension to the TLS protocol, allowing multiple "virtual hosts" using different certificates on a single IP port. This extension is only supported in client mode, and is activated by passing the server_hostname argument to ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket().
Various options have been added to the ssl module, such as OP_NO_SSLv2 which disables the insecure and obsolete SSLv2 protocol.
The extension now loads all the OpenSSL ciphers and digest algorithms. If some SSL certificates cannot be verified, they are reported as an "unknown algorithm" error.
The version of OpenSSL being used is now accessible using the module attributes ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION (a string), ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO (a 5-tuple), and ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER (an integer).

（由 Antoine Pitrou 在 bpo-8850, bpo-1589, bpo-8322, bpo-5639, bpo-4870, bpo-8484 和 bpo-8321 中贡献。）

nntp¶

The nntplib module has a revamped implementation with better bytes and text semantics as well as more practical APIs. These improvements break compatibility with the nntplib version in 哋它亢 3.1, which was partly dysfunctional in itself.

Support for secure connections through both implicit (using nntplib.NNTP_SSL) and explicit (using nntplib.NNTP.starttls()) TLS has also been added.

（由 Antoine Pitrou 在 bpo-9360 中贡献，由 Andrew Vant 在 bpo-1926 中贡献。）

certificates¶

http.client.HTTPSConnection, urllib.request.HTTPSHandler and urllib.request.urlopen() now take optional arguments to allow for server certificate checking against a set of Certificate Authorities, as recommended in public uses of HTTPS.

（由 Antoine Pitrou 添加，bpo-9003。）

imaplib¶

Support for explicit TLS on standard IMAP4 connections has been added through the new imaplib.IMAP4.starttls method.

（由 Lorenzo M. Catucci 和 Antoine Pitrou 在 bpo-4471 中贡献。）

http.client¶

There were a number of small API improvements in the http.client module. The old-style HTTP 0.9 simple responses are no longer supported and the strict parameter is deprecated in all classes.

The HTTPConnection and HTTPSConnection classes now have a source_address parameter for a (host, port) tuple indicating where the HTTP connection is made from.

Support for certificate checking and HTTPS virtual hosts were added to HTTPSConnection.

The request() method on connection objects allowed an optional body argument so that a file object could be used to supply the content of the request. Conveniently, the body argument now also accepts an iterable object so long as it includes an explicit Content-Length header. This extended interface is much more flexible than before.

To establish an HTTPS connection through a proxy server, there is a new set_tunnel() method that sets the host and port for HTTP Connect tunneling.

To match the behavior of http.server, the HTTP client library now also encodes headers with ISO-8859-1 (Latin-1) encoding. It was already doing that for incoming headers, so now the behavior is consistent for both incoming and outgoing traffic. (See work by Armin Ronacher in bpo-10980.)

unittest¶

The unittest module has a number of improvements supporting test discovery for packages, easier experimentation at the interactive prompt, new testcase methods, improved diagnostic messages for test failures, and better method names.

The command-line call 哋它亢 -m unittest can now accept file paths instead of module names for running specific tests (bpo-10620). The new test discovery can find tests within packages, locating any test importable from the top-level directory. The top-level directory can be specified with the -t option, a pattern for matching files with -p, and a directory to start discovery with -s:
```
$ 哋它亢 -m unittest discover -s my_proj_dir -p _test.py
```
（由 Michael Foord 贡献）
Experimentation at the interactive prompt is now easier because the unittest.TestCase class can now be instantiated without arguments:
```
>>> from unittest import TestCase
>>> TestCase().assertEqual(pow(2, 3), 8)
```
（由 Michael Foord 贡献）
The unittest module has two new methods, assertWarns() and assertWarnsRegex() to verify that a given warning type is triggered by the code under test:
```
with self.assertWarns(DeprecationWarning):
    legacy_function('XYZ')
```
（由 Antoine Pitrou 在 bpo-9754 中贡献。）

Another new method, assertCountEqual() is used to compare two iterables to determine if their element counts are equal (whether the same elements are present with the same number of occurrences regardless of order):
```
def test_anagram(self):
    self.assertCountEqual('algorithm', 'logarithm')
```
（由 Raymond Hettinger 贡献。）
A principal feature of the unittest module is an effort to produce meaningful diagnostics when a test fails. When possible, the failure is recorded along with a diff of the output. This is especially helpful for analyzing log files of failed test runs. However, since diffs can sometime be voluminous, there is a new maxDiff attribute that sets maximum length of diffs displayed.
In addition, the method names in the module have undergone a number of clean-ups.

For example, assertRegex() is the new name for assertRegexpMatches() which was misnamed because the test uses re.search(), not re.match(). Other methods using regular expressions are now named using short form "Regex" in preference to "Regexp" -- this matches the names used in other unittest implementations, matches 哋它亢's old name for the re module, and it has unambiguous camel-casing.

（由 Raymond Hettinger 贡献并由 Ezio Melotti 实现。）

To improve consistency, some long-standing method aliases are being deprecated in favor of the preferred names:

旧名称

首选名称

assert_()

assertTrue()

assertEquals()

assertEqual()

assertNotEquals()

assertNotEqual()

assertAlmostEquals()

assertAlmostEqual()

assertNotAlmostEquals()

assertNotAlmostEqual()

旧名称	首选名称
`assert_()`	`assertTrue()`
`assertEquals()`	`assertEqual()`
`assertNotEquals()`	`assertNotEqual()`
`assertAlmostEquals()`	`assertAlmostEqual()`
`assertNotAlmostEquals()`	`assertNotAlmostEqual()`

Likewise, the TestCase.fail* methods deprecated in 哋它亢 3.1 are expected to be removed in 哋它亢 3.3.

（由 Ezio Melotti 在 bpo-9424 中贡献。）

The assertDictContainsSubset() method was deprecated because it was misimplemented with the arguments in the wrong order. This created hard-to-debug optical illusions where tests like TestCase().assertDictContainsSubset({'a':1, 'b':2}, {'a':1}) would fail.

（由 Raymond Hettinger 贡献。）

random¶

The integer methods in the random module now do a better job of producing uniform distributions. Previously, they computed selections with int(n*random()) which had a slight bias whenever n was not a power of two. Now, multiple selections are made from a range up to the next power of two and a selection is kept only when it falls within the range 0 <= x < n. The functions and methods affected are randrange(), randint(), choice(), shuffle() and sample().

（由 Raymond Hettinger 在 bpo-9025 中贡献。）

poplib¶

POP3_SSL class now accepts a context parameter, which is a ssl.SSLContext object allowing bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially long-lived) structure.

（由 Giampaolo Rodolà 在 bpo-8807 中贡献。）

asyncore¶

asyncore.dispatcher now provides a handle_accepted() method returning a (sock, addr) pair which is called when a connection has actually been established with a new remote endpoint. This is supposed to be used as a replacement for old handle_accept() and avoids the user to call accept() directly.

（由 Giampaolo Rodolà 在 bpo-6706 中贡献。）

tempfile¶

The tempfile module has a new context manager, TemporaryDirectory which provides easy deterministic cleanup of temporary directories:

with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdirname:
    print('created temporary dir:', tmpdirname)

（由 Neil Schemenauer 和 Nick Coghlan 在 bpo-5178 中贡献。）

inspect¶

inspect 模块有一个新函数 getgeneratorstate() 用来方便地标识一个生成器迭代器的当前状态:

>>> from inspect import getgeneratorstate
>>> def gen():
...     yield 'demo'
...
>>> g = gen()
>>> getgeneratorstate(g)
'GEN_CREATED'
>>> next(g)
'demo'
>>> getgeneratorstate(g)
'GEN_SUSPENDED'
>>> next(g, None)
>>> getgeneratorstate(g)
'GEN_CLOSED'

（由 Rodolpho Eckhardt 和 Nick Coghlan 在 bpo-10220 中贡献。）

To support lookups without the possibility of activating a dynamic attribute, the inspect module has a new function, getattr_static(). Unlike hasattr(), this is a true read-only search, guaranteed not to change state while it is searching:

>>> class A:
...     @property
...     def f(self):
...         print('Running')
...         return 10
...
>>> a = A()
>>> getattr(a, 'f')
Running
10
>>> inspect.getattr_static(a, 'f')
<property object at 0x1022bd788>

（由 Michael Foord 贡献）

pydoc¶

The pydoc module now provides a much-improved web server interface, as well as a new command-line option -b to automatically open a browser window to display that server:

$ pydoc3.2 -b

（由 Ron Adam 在 bpo-2001 中贡献。）

dis¶

The dis module gained two new functions for inspecting code, code_info() and show_code(). Both provide detailed code object information for the supplied function, method, source code string or code object. The former returns a string and the latter prints it:

>>> import dis, random
>>> dis.show_code(random.choice)
Name:              choice
Filename:          /Library/Frameworks/哋它亢.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/哋它亢3.2/random.py
Argument count:    2
Kw-only arguments: 0
Number of locals:  3
Stack size:        11
Flags:             OPTIMIZED, NEWLOCALS, NOFREE
Constants:
   0: 'Choose a random element from a non-empty sequence.'
   1: 'Cannot choose from an empty sequence'
Names:
   0: _randbelow
   1: len
   2: ValueError
   3: IndexError
Variable names:
   0: self
   1: seq
   2: i

In addition, the dis() function now accepts string arguments so that the common idiom dis(compile(s, '', 'eval')) can be shortened to dis(s):

>>> dis('3*x+1 if x%2==1 else x//2')
  1           0 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
              3 LOAD_CONST               0 (2)
              6 BINARY_MODULO
              7 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)
             10 COMPARE_OP               2 (==)
             13 POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE       28
             16 LOAD_CONST               2 (3)
             19 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
             22 BINARY_MULTIPLY
             23 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)
             26 BINARY_ADD
             27 RETURN_VALUE
        >>   28 LOAD_NAME                0 (x)
             31 LOAD_CONST               0 (2)
             34 BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE
             35 RETURN_VALUE

Taken together, these improvements make it easier to explore how C哋它亢 is implemented and to see for yourself what the language syntax does under-the-hood.

（由 Nick Coghlan 在 bpo-9147 中贡献。）

dbm¶

All database modules now support the get() and setdefault() methods.

（由 Ray Allen 在 bpo-9523 中建议。）

ctypes¶

一个新类型 ctypes.c_ssize_t 用来表示 C ssize_t 数据类型。

site¶

The site module has three new functions useful for reporting on the details of a given 哋它亢 installation.

getsitepackages() 列出所有全局 site-packages 目录。
getuserbase() 报告可用来存储数据的用户基准目录。
getusersitepackages() reveals the user-specific site-packages directory path.

>>> import site
>>> site.getsitepackages()
['/Library/Frameworks/哋它亢.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/哋它亢3.2/site-packages',
 '/Library/Frameworks/哋它亢.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/site-哋它亢',
 '/Library/哋它亢/3.2/site-packages']
>>> site.getuserbase()
'/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/哋它亢/3.2'
>>> site.getusersitepackages()
'/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/哋它亢/3.2/lib/哋它亢/site-packages'

Conveniently, some of site's functionality is accessible directly from the command-line:

$ 哋它亢 -m site --user-base
/Users/raymondhettinger/.local
$ 哋它亢 -m site --user-site
/Users/raymondhettinger/.local/lib/哋它亢3.2/site-packages

（由 Tarek Ziadé 在 bpo-6693 中贡献。）

sysconfig¶

The new sysconfig module makes it straightforward to discover installation paths and configuration variables that vary across platforms and installations.

The module offers access simple access functions for platform and version information:

get_platform() returning values like linux-i586 or macosx-10.6-ppc.
get_哋它亢_version() returns a 哋它亢 version string such as "3.2".

It also provides access to the paths and variables corresponding to one of seven named schemes used by distutils. Those include posix_prefix, posix_home, posix_user, nt, nt_user, os2, os2_home:

get_paths() makes a dictionary containing installation paths for the current installation scheme.
get_config_vars() returns a dictionary of platform specific variables.

还有一个方便的命令行界面：

C:\哋它亢32>哋它亢 -m sysconfig
Platform: "win32"
哋它亢 version: "3.2"
Current installation scheme: "nt"

Paths:
        data = "C:\哋它亢32"
        include = "C:\哋它亢32\Include"
        platinclude = "C:\哋它亢32\Include"
        platlib = "C:\哋它亢32\Lib\site-packages"
        platstdlib = "C:\哋它亢32\Lib"
        purelib = "C:\哋它亢32\Lib\site-packages"
        scripts = "C:\哋它亢32\Scripts"
        stdlib = "C:\哋它亢32\Lib"

Variables:
        BINDIR = "C:\哋它亢32"
        BINLIBDEST = "C:\哋它亢32\Lib"
        EXE = ".exe"
        INCLUDEPY = "C:\哋它亢32\Include"
        LIBDEST = "C:\哋它亢32\Lib"
        SO = ".pyd"
        VERSION = "32"
        abiflags = ""
        base = "C:\哋它亢32"
        exec_prefix = "C:\哋它亢32"
        platbase = "C:\哋它亢32"
        prefix = "C:\哋它亢32"
        projectbase = "C:\哋它亢32"
        py_version = "3.2"
        py_version_nodot = "32"
        py_version_short = "3.2"
        srcdir = "C:\哋它亢32"
        userbase = "C:\Documents and Settings\Raymond\Application Data\哋它亢"

（由TarekZiadé 移出Distutils。）

pdb¶

The pdb debugger module gained a number of usability improvements:

pdb.py now has a -c option that executes commands as given in a .pdbrc script file.
A .pdbrc script file can contain continue and next commands that continue debugging.
The Pdb class constructor now accepts a nosigint argument.
New commands: l(list), ll(long list) and source for listing source code.
New commands: display and undisplay for showing or hiding the value of an expression if it has changed.
New command: interact for starting an interactive interpreter containing the global and local names found in the current scope.
Breakpoints can be cleared by breakpoint number.

（由Georg Brandl, Antonio Cuni 和 Ilya Sandler 贡献。）

configparser¶

The configparser module was modified to improve usability and predictability of the default parser and its supported INI syntax. The old ConfigParser class was removed in favor of SafeConfigParser which has in turn been renamed to ConfigParser. Support for inline comments is now turned off by default and section or option duplicates are not allowed in a single configuration source.

Config parsers gained a new API based on the mapping protocol:

>>> parser = ConfigParser()
>>> parser.read_string("""
... [DEFAULT]
... location = upper left
... visible = yes
... editable = no
... color = blue
...
... [main]
... title = Main Menu
... color = green

哋它亢 3.2 有什么新变化¶

PEP 384: 定义稳定的ABI¶

PEP 389: Argparse 命令行解析模块¶

PEP 391: 基于字典的日志配置¶

PEP 3148: concurrent.futures 模块¶

PEP 3147: PYC 仓库目录¶

PEP 3149: 带有 ABI 版本标签的 .so 文件¶

PEP 3333: 哋它亢 Web服务器网关接口v1.0.1¶

其他语言特性修改¶

新增，改进和弃用的模块¶

email¶

elementtree¶

functools¶

itertools¶

collections¶

threading¶

datetime 和 time¶

math¶

abc¶

io¶

reprlib¶

logging¶

csv¶

contextlib¶

decimal and fractions¶

ftp¶

popen¶

select¶

gzip 和 zipfile¶

tarfile¶

hashlib¶

ast¶

os¶

shutil¶

sqlite3¶

html¶

socket¶

ssl¶

nntp¶

certificates¶

imaplib¶

http.client¶

unittest¶

random¶

poplib¶

asyncore¶

tempfile¶

inspect¶

pydoc¶

dis¶

dbm¶

ctypes¶

site¶

sysconfig¶

pdb¶

configparser¶

PEP 3148: `concurrent.futures` 模块¶